THE EXAMINATION 
OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

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THE EXAMINATION 
OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

A MANUAL OF DIRECTIONS 
AND NORMS 



BY 



WILLIAM HENRY PYLE, Ph.D. 

ii 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI 

AUTHOR OF "THE OUTLINES OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 



Nefo gorfc 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1913 

All rights reserved 



^6 



Copyright, 1913, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1913. 



Norfoooti Stress 

J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



/V° 



CIA361104 



PREFACE 

The purpose of this manual is to provide, in conven- 
ient form for teachers, directions for the examination 
of school children and tables of norms for the various 
ages. No originality is claimed for the tests ; they have 
been in use for some time. After extensive trial of 
nearly all the forms of mental tests that have been 
proposed, I have selected those that, all things con- 
sidered, seem best for group tests. I give the complete 
tables of norms for the tests essentially as described in 
Whipple's Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, be- 
cause these tests are already known and the material 
available. Additional tests with the norms will be pub- 
lished annually. In the present volume, supplementary 
material is provided for nearly all the tests. 

It is hoped that the publication of this material in 
this form will aid the teacher somewhat in the scientific 
study of school children. 

To the many superintendents, principals, and teachers 
who have assisted in giving the tests, I am under great 
obligation ; also to Mr. C. W. Bock, who prepared the 
graphs, and to Miss Dora Ross, who for two years has 
assisted me in grading and working up the material. 

W. H. P. 

University of Missouri, 

Columbia, ' 

October 6, 1913. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/examinationofschOOpyle 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL 
CHILDREN 

Mental and Physical Tests of School Children 

The farmer knows his cows. He knows from which 
breeds he gets the most return. He knows what kind 
of food is best for the cows. He knows how they re- 
spond to different kinds of treatment. In a similar way 
he knows his hogs, his horses, his chickens and his 
sheep. He knows the relative values of different kinds 
of fruit trees and their relation to soil and climate. 
But the teacher of his children has no adequate knowl- 
edge of them. Is the teacher ignorant because it is 
impossible to have definite knowledge of children's 
minds or because such knowledge is useless ? It is true 
that she may know in a general way that some pupils 
do well in their studies and that others do not. She 
may know that some pupils do well in certain branches 
of study and not in others. But even such knowledge 
is quite general and indefinite, not accurate and specific. 
And besides, she knows next to nothing of the causes of 
such conditions. If a certain child does poorly in his 
school work, she does not know whether it. is due to 
lack of ability or to lack of industry, or to some general 



2 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

or specific mental deficiency. Such a case may be due 
to no deficiency at all, but to some sensory defect or 
to some disease of a vital organ. The backwardness 
may be due to improper development of the child, caused, 
perhaps, by some neglect on the part of parents, to in- 
sufficient or improper clothing, or to lack of exercise. 
But which of these factors is the cause of the child's 
failure, the teacher seldom knows with certainty. 

There is no longer any excuse for such ignorance, for 
surely such knowledge would help in a high degree to 
solve the problem of the child's education. And further- 
more, the knowledge can be obtained. The sense organs 
can be examined by the teacher herself, and the school 
physician can assist in a physical and medical examina- 
tion of the child. To set forth the means of making a 
mental diagnosis of all the children of the school and to 
give norms for the different ages, is the primary purpose 
of this book. 

In the case of a child that does well in one subject and 
not in another, is the cause to be found in the unequal 
development of different mental characteristics? Or 
is it to be found rather in poor methods of teaching the 
subject in which the child does poorly ? Is the child's 
failure due to an unfortunate experience in getting 
started in the subject? Or may it possibly be due to 
the attitude taken toward the subject by the child's 
parents or teachers? General observations only will 
seldom enable a teacher to answer these questions. 
They can be answered only after special investigation 



MENTAL AND PHYSICAL TESTS 3 

and specific tests. And it must not be thought that 
such cases are of rare occurrence. They are quite 
common. In fact it has been found that a child's ex- 
perience and his environment play a very important 
part in determining his attitude toward subjects of study. 
And it must be remembered that early attitude toward 
a study and early training in the study are very important 
factors in determining further progress in that study. 

An accurate knowledge of the mental and physical 
natures of each child under a teacher's charge would 
assist her very much in the actual teaching. She could 
adapt her teaching to the various types and degrees of 
capacity before her, and particularly she could know 
how to direct the study of each child. Some children 
are quick to learn, as shown by the substitution test; 
others are slow. Some are quick at perception, as shown 
by the cancellation test, and others are slow. The 
associative processes of some children are quick, of 
others, slow. Some have good memories, while the 
memories of others are poor and inaccurate. These 
differences make it necessary to teach a child to study 
in such a way that he will get the largest return for his 
efforts. There is a method of study best adapted to 
the various types of memory, ideation, and imagination. 
The teacher must determine these specific mental 
characteristics and then teach the child to use the 
appropriate method of study. 

It will be quite worth while to follow the mental 
development of each child through the grades, from the 



4 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

time when he first enters school or as soon thereafter 
as accurate tests can be given to him, till he leaves 
school at graduation. If these tests are given annually, 
or oftener, and careful records kept of the results, com- 
parisons can be made of these records with the child's 
age and with his actual school work. This will give the 
teacher much information of value in deciding upon 
the proper course to pursue in individual cases. To 
illustrate : A Kansas City principal, after giving the 
mental tests discussed in this book, discovered some 
children doing poor work but standing high in ability 
as determined by the tests. He at once turned his at- 
tention to these pupils and was able to get them to do 
the work of which they were capable. 

Finally, if these tests are given and records 1 kept of 
them for years, facts of great value to education will be 
discovered. Particularly will this be true where psy- 
chological and medical experts can direct and supervise 
the mental and physical examinations. 

The ideal procedure which we have in mind in this 
connection is as follows : Each unit system of schools, 
— a city, a county or township, should be in charge of 
a psychological and physical expert who should devote 
his whole time to the work of examining children and 
advising teachers concerning the proper treatment of 
them. Every child should be carefully watched and 
studied. Of course, the majority of children will not 

1 In the author's Outlines of Educational Psychology, a system of keep- 
ing the records of mental and physical tests is explained. 



THE CHILD EXPERT AND THE SPECIAL TEACHER 5 

give a great deal of trouble, but all need some atten- 
tion, and the growth of each one should be carefully 
watched. There will be, however, a large per cent that 
will need especially careful attention and study. In cities 
of 10,000 inhabitants, for example, there will usually be 
found enough children who are subnormal and backward 
to occupy the time of one or two special teachers. All 
such children should be most carefully studied so that 
the kind of work that they are able to do and the 
way they should do it can be scientifically determined. 
Besides the subnormal, and backward children that 
should be under a special teacher, there will be found 
many children scattered through the grades who, because 
of some minor peculiarity or defect, need special study 
and attention. We need, also, to give much more 
attention to the supernormal than we have ever done 
before. The supernormal child, the child that is far 
above the average, should be picked out on the basis 
of actual work in school and on the basis of the mental 
tests and physical development, and then allowed to 
pass through the grades as fast as his ability and de- 
velopment warrant. In all this work, the mental tests 
will be of great assistance. 

The Child Expert and the Special Teacher 

For every system of schools, then, there should be a 
mental and physical expert devoting his whole time to 
the study and examination of the children. He assists 
in picking out the able ones who are to be allowed to go 



6 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

on and finish the elementary school course in less than 
the normal time. He assists in finding the child of 
special and unusual ability in some certain direction, as 
in drawing, painting, music, mechanical invention and 
construction, etc. This child is to be given opportunity 
for the development and training of his unusual ability. 
He assists in picking out the subnormal and mentally 
deficient. These, many of them, should be put under a 
special teacher, — a teacher of ability and with much spe- 
cial preparation and training for dealing with such children. 
Under this special teacher should be placed, temporarily, 
children backward in their work though not mentally 
weak, behind because of misfortunes of one kind or 
another, or because of some sensory defect. These 
children, backward but of good mentality, should be 
able sooner or later to return to the regular school. 

The benefit to be derived by a community from the 
services of the child expert and the special teacher can 
hardly be overestimated. Let us think again of the 
city of 10,000 people. It has several thousand school 
children. These need the daily attention of a child 
expert. They are so many thousands of growing 
organisms. They have many defects and diseases. 
Their teeth, mouth, throat, nose, eyes, ears, digestive 
and excreting systems, and vital organs need constant 
attention. If they were so many plants, apple trees, 
let us say, they would need the attention of a trained 
horticulturist, who would prune them, spray them, and 
see that the soil were properly fertilized. As children 



THE MENTAL TESTS 7 

they need even more careful and constant care. In 
quite a true sense they need to be sprayed and pruned. 
They, too, need the services of an expert, a child expert, 
to watch over them constantly, and to direct their 
teacher in their proper care, now sending a child to an 
oculist, now to a dentist, now to the special teacher. 
We do not believe in wasting a lot of money on the sub- 
normal children, but it will be a saving of money to 
segregate them and give them just the kind of training 
which they are capable of receiving. The subnormal 
children should have only such training as will profit 
them. There is possible for them only the humblest 
of careers. But the determination of the degree of 
subnormality and the direction of their education should 
be under the direction of a most competent person. 

All children need constant care. It is quite safe to say 
that a child expert would give a community more return 
for the money paid him than does any other public serv- 
ant. The state has for some time had all sorts of experts 
in other fields. The child expert is the last to arrive. 
We venture to predict that the time will soon come 
when he will be the most valuable expert in the service 
of society. He must, of course, be thoroughly trained 
for his work. He should have extensive training in 
psychology, physiology, hygiene, and medicine. 

.The Mental Tests 

General Directions. — Unless these tests are given 
in the right way, it is worse than useless to give them at 



8 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

all. Therefore the person administering them should 
understand the procedure perfectly. Before the pupils 
begin a test they should understand exactly what they 
are to do. In most of the tests it will be well to illus- 
trate the procedure with different material from that 
to be used. The teacher must be careful to see that the 
work is all honestly done by the pupil ; there should be 
no copying or cheating. Some means should be used 
to get all the pupils to take the proper attitude toward 
the tests so that each will do his best. 

The tests should be given in the morning immediately 
after the opening exercises. To give the mental tests 
properly requires a little more than an hour. It will 
therefore be best to take two mornings for the tests, 
setting aside 40 or 50 minutes for the work each time, 
and give the same tests throughout the schools the first 
morning and the remainder of the tests the following 
day. If some pupils take a test before other pupils 
in the same building, the later tests would be vitiated 
by communication on the part of the pupils. 

Too much reliance must not be put upon the results 
of a single test; for that reason supplementary tests 
are added. The tests for which the norms are given 
should be administered first. The supplementary tests 
can be given later. 

Logical Memory 

Object. — The object of this test is to determine 
the child's immediate memory for ideas. It is a test 



LOGICAL MEMORY 0. 

of one's memory for meaningful material. A pupil's 
standing in this test may serve as an index of his ability 
to remember the subject matter of the school studies 
which deal with logical material. 

Method. — The procedure in this test is to read the 
selection to be reproduced, slowly and distinctly. After 
the reading, the pupils write down all of the story that 
they can remember. Let each pupil have sufficient 
time to write all that he can readily recall. Since this 
is not a test of one's speed in writing, the time of re- 
production should not be limited, except to this extent, 
— when each child has written all that can at the time 
be recalled, the papers should be taken up. Care should 
of course be taken to see that each pupil does his own 
work. Before giving the test, give the following in- 
structions : 

" I shall read to you a story entitled the Marble Statue. After 
I have read it, you may write down what you remember of the 
story. You need not use the exact words that I read, unless you 
wish, but you may write it down in your own words; try to 
remember as much as possible and write down all you remember." 

To older pupils, it may be well to add : " Try to get 
not only the main facts, but also the details." 

The Material : The Marble Statue. — Whipple. 

A young / man / worked / years / to carve / a white / 
marble / statue / of a beautiful / girl. / She grew prettier / 
day by day. / He began to love the statue / so well that / one 
day / he said to it : / "I would give / everything / in the 
world / if you would be alive / and be my wife." / Just then / 



IO 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



the clock struck / twelve, / and the cold / stone began to 
grow warm, / the cheeks red, / the hair brown, / the lips to 
move. / She stepped down, / and he had his wish. / They 
lived happily / together / for years, / and three / beautiful / 
children were born. / One day / he was very tired, / and 
grew / so angry, / without cause, / that he struck her. / 
She wept, / kissed / each child / and her husband, / stepped 
back / upon the pedestal, / and slowly / grew cold, / pale,/ 
and stiff, / closed her eyes, / and when the clock / struck / 
midnight, / she was a statue / of pure / white / marble,/ 
as she had been / years before, / and could not hear / the 
sobs / of her husband / and children. 

Grading the Results. — The child's written reproduc- 
tion of the story is compared, unit by unit, with the 
story as divided above. Allow one credit for each 
idea or unit adequately reproduced. There are 67 

ideas in all. 

table 1 

Norms l 

BOYS 





Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


n 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


102 


148 


142 


149 


156 


163 


129 


89 


60 


45 


32 


65 




Norm . . 


24.3 


28.7 


3°-0 


32.9 


35-i 


36.8 


36.1 


36.5 


34-4 


34-6 


36.9 


38.3 


33-7 


Av. Dev. . 


J> ; 7 


9.1 


6.7 


5-6 


7-4 


6.3 


7.0 


6.7 


5-6 


8.7 


6.0 


7.0 


6.9 


GIRLS 


Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


89 


158 


138 


156 


191 


164 


146 


99 


94 


81 


48 


86 




Norm . . 


28.5 


31.0 


33-5 


36.4 


38.1 


38.5 


39-0 


39-1 


37-3 


36.6 


37-8 


40.1 


37-1 


Av. Dev. . 


11.3 


9.4 


6.8 


7-7 


7.2 


7-1 


7-5 


6.3 


5-i 


6.9 


4.4 


5-9 


7-i 





1 In this and all the tables of mental norms that follow, " age " means 
the age at the last birthday. The averages would therefore be 8£, g\, 



LOGICAL MEMORY 



II 




Logical Memory. Upper line, girls ; lower line, boys. In this and all 
the graphs that follow, age is represented on the horizontal and 
standing in the test on the vertical axis. 

Additional Material 

For additional tests, especially for further examination 
of special cases, the following selections may be used. 



The Boy Who Would not Drink 

An old / sailor / tells the following story / of a boy / who 
suffered / much / in refusing to break a promise. / When 
ordered to drink, / the lad said,/ " Excuse me ; / I would 
rather not."/ They laughed at him,/ but they nevei 
could get him to drink liquor./ The captain said to the 
boy,/ "You must learn to drink liquor / if you are to be a 
sailor." / "Please excuse me,/ captain,/ but I would rather 
not."/ "Take that rope, "/ commanded the captain, to a 
sailor,/ "and whip the boy,/ that will teach him/ to obey 
orders." / The sailor took the rope / and beat the boy / 
most cruelly. / "Now drink that liquor," / said the captain. 
/ "Please, sir, / but I would rather not." / "Then go to the 



12 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

top of the mast / and stay all night." / The poor boy / 
looked up into the sails,/ trembling / at the thought of spend- 
ing the night there, / but he had to obey. / In the morning / 
the captain / looked up/ and cried,/ "Hello, there."/ 
There was no answer. / "Come down." / Still no answer./ 
One of the sailors / was sent up,/ and what do you think 
he found ? / The poor boy was nearly frozen./ He had 
lashed himself / to the mast / so that when the ship rolled / 
he would not fall / into the sea. / The sailor brought him 
down / in his arms / and they worked over him / until he 
showed signs of life. / When he was able to sit up / the 
captain poured out some liquor / and said, / " Now drink 
that." / "Please, sir, / I would rather not, / because 
my father was a drunkard / and I promised / my mother / 
when she was dying / that I would never taste drink. /Do 
you want me to break / a promise / to my dying / mother ?" / 
Tears / came into the captain's eyes, / and he said: "No, 
my boy, / I shall never try / to make you drink / again." 

The Golden Goose 

A man had three / sons. / The youngest / was considered 
silly / because he was kind / and gentle. / The oldest / son 
cut wood / in the forest / and his mother / always gave him 
a good lunch of cakes / and wine. / One day / as he was 
eating,/ a little / old man / came up / and asked for some- 
thing to eat. / But the young man / harshly / replied that 
if he gave food away / he would have none left / for himself. / 
Shortly afterward / he began cutting down a tree. / He 
slipped / and cut his arm / badly. / The next day / the 
second son / went to the forest / and he also had a fine / 
lunch / put. up by his mother. / Again the little old man / 
came / and asked for something to eat. / The young man 
angrily / told him to go away / as he had no more than he 



LOGICAL MEMORY 1 3 

wanted himself. / The old man / went away / but the self- 
ish / fellow / had scarcely struck / two blows / with his 
ax / when he cut / a deep / gash / in his leg. / The next 
day / the third son / went to the forest, / but his mother / 
put up for him / only some coarse / bread / and sour / 
beer. / Again the old man came / and asked for food. / 
The young man said / that he had only some bread / baked 
in the ashes / and some sour / beer / but that the man was 
welcome to a share of it. / As they began to eat, / the bread 
turned to cake / and the beer / to wine./ The old man said : 
" Because you have been kind to me / I will make you lucky. / 
There stands an old / tree ; / cut it down / and you will find 
something good / at the roots." / The young man / cut 
down the tree / and found sitting at the roots / a goose / 
whose feathers / were of pure / gold./ This brought him 
great / good fortune / and a princess / for a wife. / 

The average performance in this test is, for adults, 

63.5. 

The Two Ways 

A man once / got positions / for two boys. / Afterward / 
he was called to the police station / to get one / out of jail. / 
He went to the men / who had hired the boys / and inquired 
about them. / He learned that one boy / when he came down 
to work / before the regular hour / stood on the curb / till 
the last stroke. / The other / was always / about a half- 
hour ahead of time,/ working away. / The one always left 
work / on the stroke of the minute. / The other / never 
paid any attention / to the closing hour, / until his work 
was finished./ The one growled / and complained at the 
tasks / thrown upon him / outside of the regular work. / 
The other / did everything asked / in a smiling way. / The 
one / spent his evenings / amusing himself / in the dance 



14 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

hall / or nickel show, / the other / spent his evenings / 
reading / or studying / about the different parts of his busi- 
ness. / The one / is on the road / to success, / the other / 
is already a drinker / and a gambler / and is on the road / 
to ruin. 

The average performance in the above test is, for 
adults, 35.4. 

Rote Memory 

Object. — The object of the rote memory test is to 
determine the immediate memory of the pupil for un- 
related impressions. It tests merely verbal memory, 
memory for discrete impressions. A high relative 
standing in this test probably indicates ability in studies 
which demand simply verbal memory ; i.e. in such work 
as learning spelling, tables, formulas, dates, and all 
similar material. 

Method. — There are two lists of words, concrete and 
abstract, with six groups in each list. The concrete words 
are given first. The first group should be pronounced 
and the children given time to write the words. Then 
the second group should be given, and so on till the six 
groups of concrete words have been pronounced. Then 
the abstract words should be similarly given. 

Instructions. — The teacher should say : 

" I shall pronounce to you a number of words, one group at a 
time. There are three in the first group, but more in the others. 
As soon as I have pronounced a group of words, you may write 
them down. Try to write them in the same order that they are 
given. If you can not remember some words, leave their places va- 
cant and write in the proper places the words you do remember." 



ROTE MEMORY 



15 



The teacher should furnish the pupils with prepared 
blanks or have them prepare blanks as follows : 



First list. Concrete 

1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3- 
4- 
etc. 

Material. — The following 
Concrete 

1. street, ink, lamp 

2. spoon, horse, chair, stone 

3. ground, clock, boy, chalk, 

book 

4. desk, milk, hand, card, 

floor, cat 

5. ball, cup, glass, hat, fork, 

pole, cloud 

6. coat, girl, house, salt, 

glove, watch, box, mat 



Second list. Abstract 



1. 
2. 

3- 
4- 
etc. 

words : 

Abstract 

1. time, game, scheme 

2. grade, fact, work, thing 

3. pluck, love, blame, fear, 

proof 

4. space, force, pride, fright, 

joy, size 

5. length, light, style, rate, 

cause, youth, hate 

6. law, thought, plot, glee, 

life, call, price, strength 



Method of Grading. — The work is to be graded not 
only on the basis of memory for the words but for their 
positions. A word remembered is to count one point, 
and its correct position, one point. The word in its 
correct position, therefore, counts for two points. If 
the three words of the first group are remembered and 



i6 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



put in their proper order, they count for six points. A 
perfect score would be 66 points for the concrete list 
and 66 points for the abstract list. 



TABLE II 

Concrete. Norms 
boys 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


34 


58 


64 


55 


60 


60 


35 


25 


14 


7 


5 


64 




Norm . . 


31.2 


32.4 


35-8 


37-7 


37-7 


3X.3 


40.0 


40.2 


43-4 


45-7 


49-0 


44-3 


39-64 


Av. Dev. . 


6.7 


7-4 


6-3 


6.4 


5.o 


5-6 


6.4 


4-9 


6-3 


5-i 


7-6 


6.6 


6.19 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


37 


68 


69 


52 


70 


5i 


34 


13 


17 


8 


2 


88 




Norm . . 


32.9 


32.7 


39-6 


37-7 


38.7 


40.4 


44.2 


42.0 


42.5 


40.5 


52.0 


47-6 


40.9 


Av. Dev. . 


7-i 


6.2 


5-2 


5-2 


6.1 


5-4 


7.0 


7.0 


4.8 


4.6 


2.0 


7-7 


5-69 



Abstract. Norms 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


34 


58 


63 


55 


60 


60 


35 


25 


14 


7 


5 


62 




Norm . . 


22.9 


26.3 


26.8 


31-7 


31-0 


32.4 


37-3 


34-1 


40.0 


41. 1 


40.8 


42.3 


33.89 


Av. Dev. . 


7-8 


7-5 


7.0 


7-1 


6.6 


7-7 


7-i 


6.2 


8.3 


6.2 


2.2 


6.2 


6.65 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


23-7 


68 


69 


52 


69 


52 


34 


13 


17 


9 


2 


88 




Norm . . 


20.5 


24.0 


31.0 


31.8 


34.o 


36.0 


39-0 


37-8 


41.0 


37-0 


49.0 


39-8 


35-07 


Av. Dev. . 


7-8 


5-8 


6.1 


7-i 


7-5 


4.0 


8.4 


7-3 


5-2 


7-3 


4.0 


6.1 


6.38 



ROTE MEMORY 



17 



20k 

8 





^ 


^S»fc_ 




§(K|S 
/\ge 


/^ 


/ ^y 



10 II 12 13 14 • 15 16 II 16 A As 



Rote Memory. Solid line, boys ; broken line, girls. The upper graphs 
are for concrete rote memory and the lower ones for abstract rote 
memory. The sex differences in this test appear to be very small. 



Additional Material 



Concrete 

1. cat, tree, coat 

2. mule, bird, cart, glass 

3. star, horse, dress, fence, 

man 

4. fish, sun, head, door, shoe, 

block 

5. train, mill, box, desk, oil, 

pup, bill 

6. floor, car, pipe, bridge, 

hand, dirt, cow, crank 



Abstract 

1. good, black, fast 

2. clean, tall, round, hot 

3. long, wet, fierce, white, 

cold 

4. deep, soft, quick, dark, 

great, dead 

5. sad, strong, hard, bright, 

fine, glad, plain 

6. sharp, late, sour, wide, 

rough, thick, red, tight 



1 8 the examination of school children 

The Substitution Test 

Object. — The substitution test is a test of quickness 
of learning. It determines the speed with which a 
person can build up new associations. It is in part, 
of course, a memory test, but it is more. In the two 
memory tests, the material is presented but once ; in 
this test, by repeating the same impressions over and 
over, we determine how fast the pupil can build up 
habitual connections. 

Method. — The pupil is provided with the proper 
forms, copies of which are shown on pp. 20-21, and in- 
structed to fill in the blanks according to the key at the 
top of the page of the test sheet. The sheets should 
be distributed and placed face down on the desks. 
For the digit-symbol test, the instructions should be : 

" In the circles at the top of the sheet before you, are written 
the nine digits and nine symbols which are to be written in the 
blank squares below for the digits to which they correspond. 
Work as fast as you can and try to fill as many of the squares as 
possible, without making mistakes." 

In the symbol-digit test, say : 

" In the blank squares below, you are to write the digits which 
correspond to the symbols." 

Before beginning the test, the teacher should explain, 
by using the blackboard, just how the experiment is 
to be performed. Allow eight minutes in grades up 
to the fourth and five minutes in grade five and above. 



THE SUBSTITUTION TEST 



19 



Material. — For material, use the Whipple digit- 
symbol and symbol-digit test sheets. Give the symbol- 
digit sheet first. 

Method of Grading. — Count each square correctly 
filled, one point, and determine the speed per minute, 
by dividing the number of squares correctly filled by 
the number of minutes spent in filling them. A perfect 
score would be 200 points for each test. If the test 
were done in eight minutes, the grade of the pupil would, 
of course, be 25. If the test were done in five minutes, 
the grade would be 40. 

TABLE III 

Norms 
Digit-symbol Test 

BOYS 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


34 


58 


5o 


49 


56 


62 


48 


35 


3i 


14 


17 


67 




Norm . . 


10.3 


12.6 


15-4 


16.3 


19.1 


22.6 


21. 1 


24.7 


24.8 


23.8 


28.7 


29-3 


20.7 


Av. Dev. .. 


3-5 


4.1 


3-9 


3-6 


5-i 


5-8 


4-5 


4.6 


5-4 


4-3 


3-5 


8.7 


4-7 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


37 


61 


58 


49 


68 


49 


46 


34 


46 


38 


29 


88 




Norm . . 


13-0 


15-7 


18.8 


18.5 


22.7 


23-4 


26.8 


26.8 


27-5 


28.5 


25-9 


32.2 


24.1 


Av. Dev. . 


3-2 


4.1 


4.4 


4.1 


4.9 


5-2 


5-o 


4-7 


5-3 


5-7 


7.o 


4.2 


4.8 



Symbol-digit Test 

BOYS 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


37 


72 


76 


62 


75 


78 


59 


45 


38 


20 


17 


56 




Norm . . 


10.0 


13.2 


16.5 


17.7 


19-3 


20.7 


23-3 


25.8 


27.8 


26.1 


28.0 


33-0 


21.78 


Av. Dev. . 


5-3 


5-o 


5-8 


5-4 


5-4 


5-7 


5-4 


5-9 


6-3 


7-4 


5-i 


9-3 


6.00 



©©©©© 
©©©© 



84,976 












27,516 












79,821 












33,821 






— 






63,442 












97,473 






21,629 












62,978 














57,183 












31,542 






32,761 












17,143 




95,146 












26,981 













28,349 












35,724 








73,862 












16,315 










91,563 












14,923 












37,628 












34,762 












42,916 












28,543 












23,729 












83,936 












85,652 












75,314 












35,486 












56,283 












29,635 












19,175 












72,518 












36,293 












24,631 












85,746 











— 


19,852 












15,283 








76,431 












24,976 













Name. 

Sex 



Age. 



Date 

,„ Grade. 



20 



©©©©© 
©©©(2) 



* ■ C V □ 














a ] > < + 












/ V '■*■ c > 












/ < * V ] 












] < D / * 






+ [./]'< 












V D' / [ -*- 












] < * > - 












D ] V * > 












/ -T- a [ v 












V [ □ / + 












* > v / + 












< * V [ < 












D C ]' V * 












/ > -*- * ] 












] < > / a 












[ ■] V < + 












[ n * V > 












□ */-[■> 












< / ] [ V 












-*- * D / 












-*- a > < * 












* > [ V □ 












[ / * D ] 












[+'<•!/ 












>■+<[/ 












< > [ □ + 












a c / > ■ + 




— 


— 


— 




] * D > / 












/ * v < a 




V [ * ] 












+ < > V ] 












> D * V - 


— 










[ . n * + > 












V ] < / * 


] v < / [ 












+ > C V ] 












a + < * v 












[ < D V / 












V V ] r / 













Name. : Date. 



Sex. 



Age Grade. 

21 



22 



THE EXAMINATION OE SCHOOL CHILDREN 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


4i 


82 


82 


63 


89 


66 


62 


44 


55 


43 


29 


89 




Norm . . 


10.9 


16.0 


19.9 


19.6 


23.1 


25.6 


27.4 


29.7 


29.1 


32.0 


33-1 


31-3 


24.80 


Av. Dev. . 


5-3 


5-2 


6.4 


6.3 


6.6 


6.4 


6.1 


6.7 


5-3 


6.3 


4-4 


5-4 


5-86 






Learning capacity as determined by the two substitution tests. The 
upper line represents the improvement in learning capacity with age 
in girls and the lower line, in boys. 



Invention or the Word -Building Test 

Object. — This test determines the pupil's ingenuity 
in constructing words, using certain prescribed letters. 
The ability tested is a type of inventiveness and is by 
no means simple, — memory, attention, association, and 
ideational type are doubtless involved. 

Method. — The pupil is given the letters a, e, 0, b, 
m, t, and told to make as many words as possible 
in five minutes. For the second test, use the letters 
e, a, i, r, I, p. The words must be real English words, no 
word must contain a letter not in the list, and no word 



INVENTION OR THE WORD-BUILDING TEST 



23 



must contain one of these letters more than once. After 
explaining the test, pronounce the letters to be used and 
at the same time write them on the blackboard. The 
pupils should copy the letters, writing them at the top 
of the sheet on which they are to write their words. 
The instructions should be : 

" I wish to see how many words you can make in five minutes 
by using only the letters which I give you. The words must be 
real English words. You must use only the letters which I give 
you and do not use the same letter more than once in the same 
word. You do not, of course, have to use all the letters in each 
word. A word may contain only a part of the letters." 

Method of Grading. — The grade is the number of 
words that do not violate the rules of the test. 

For additional tests use the letters 0, e, u, b, n, r and 
a, e, i, c, h, s. The norm for the first for adults is 15.5 
and for the latter is 12.2. 

TABLE IV 

Invention — a e i r I p 

BOYS 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


18 


45 


48 


51 


55 


62 


46 


30 


29 


21 


20 


22 




Norm . . 


6-5 


7-3 


9.4 


ti.o 


11.0 


12.4 


11.8 


16.0 


16.4 


18.9 


14-3 


22.7 


13-14 


Av. Dev. . 


3-9 


3-6 


3-i 


3-8 


4.1 


4.9 


4-3 


4.4 


3-6 


3.0 


4-1 


3-2 


3.83 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


17 


53 


66 


52 


66 


4i 


5i 


36 


50 


37 


29 


38 




Norm . . 


6.7 


8.4 


10.4 


12.2 


14.2 


15.8 


16.0 


17. 1 


16.5 


16.4 


19.6 


22.0 


14.60 


Av. Dev. . 


4.0 


4-5 


4.1 


4.0 


5-4 


5-3 


5-8 


3-4 


4.9 


5-3 


3-7 


3-6 


4-5 



24 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



Invention — a e o b m t 

BOYS 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


i7 


44 


46 


Si 


5i 


60 


45 


28 


29 


17 


18 


64 




Norm . . 


6.6 


7-3 


9.1 


10.4 


10.0 


113 


12.5 


15.8 


14.1 


16.6 


16.0 


18.6 


12.35 


Av. Dev. . 


4.0 


3-5 


3-o 


2.8 


3-3 


4-7 


4.4 


3-5 


3-1 


3-7 


3-7 


3-7 


3.61 





Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 




No. . . . 


17 


51 


67 


53 


68 


47 


45 


35 


49 


36 


29 


86 






Norm . . 


71 


8.0 


10.5 


n-5 


13-2 


15.5 


13-7 


15.0 


13-5 


13-9 


18.8 


21. 1 


13.48 




Av. Dev. . 


2.2 


3-7 


3-7 


3-5 


4.1 


4.2 


4.4 


3-1 


4.6 


4.9 


4.4 


2.7 


3-79 



15 
10 



Bcnp 



APE 



9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 
Invention. Solid line, boys; broken line, girls. 



18 Ade. 



The Association Tests 

Object. — The object of the association tests is to 
determine the quickness of the association processes. 
In the uncontrolled or free association test, the pupil is 
started with a word and then he writes as fast as possible 
the other words that come into mind. No restriction 



THE ASSOCIATION TESTS 25 

is put upon the subject ; he writes whatever comes into 
mind. The result of the test is a criterion of the rapid- 
ity of flow of one's ideas when no limitation is put upon 
this flow. While the results would be more accurate 
if the subject merely spoke the words as fast as they 
came to mind, nevertheless, it gives a high degree of 
accuracy when the pupils write the words, and it is not 
possible to have the words spoken when the test is given 
as a group test. 

In the controlled association tests, — opposites, 
genus-species, and part-whole tests, — a limitation is 
put upon the flow of ideas. The subject is not to write 
any word that may come to mind, but only words that 
satisfy certain conditions; i.e. a word that is the op- 
posite, that is of lower order, or that names a whole 
of which the word names a part. The association tests 
are of great significance in mental diagnosis, for they 
test functions that are at the basis of the reasoning 
process. When a person is given a problem to solve, he 
is given a test in controlled association. The problem 
starts the flow of ideas and puts the limitation upon this 
flow. The problem is solved only if the right ideas come. 
Of the three controlled association tests, the opposites 
test gives the most significant results, probably only 
because the conditions of the test are more readily 
understood by the pupils than are the conditions of the 
other two tests. These association tests, if carefully 
given and especially if several tests are given, are among 
the most valuable of all the tests. 



26 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



Uncontrolled or Free Association 

Method. — The pupil is given the following instruc- 
tions : 

"I wish to see how many words you can think of and write 
down in three minutes. I shall name a word, you may write it 
down and then write all the other words that come to your mind. 
Work as fast as you can." 

When you are sure that the test is understood by the 
pupils, give them the word play and start the stop watch. 
The only material needed for the test is paper on which 
the words are to be written. 

Method of Grading. — This test is graded by merely 
counting the number of words written. It furnishes 
valuable material also for studying association from 
the qualitative point of view. The words written by 
a pupil give some indication of his past experience. 
But we are not here concerned with that aspect of the 
test. 

table v 

Norms 

BOYS 





Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


33 


60 


66 


66 


77 


80 


57 


38 


36 


16 


21 


64 




Norm . . 


23-0 


26.9 


29.7 


33-3 


34-2 


33-9 


33-3 


40.0 


33-3 


42.8 


48.9 


42.2 


35-12 


Av. Dev. . 


7-5 


7.6 


9.0 


11.4 


10.9 


14.6 


13.2 


14.8 


14.6 


12.3 


16.6 


13,8 


11.69 


GIRLS 


Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


37 


82 


88 


65 


90 


66 


61 


46 


46 


38 


29 


86 




Norm . . 


23-7 


31.0 


32.2 


36.8 


36.6 


38.3 


39-1 


40.2 


40.9 


41.6 


47.1 


38.3 


37.15 


Av. Dev. . 


8.2 


8.9 


10.8 


12. 1 


15.4 


16.8 


12.9 


13.8 


14.1 


14.0 


13-9 


I3-I 


12.83 





the opposites test 27 

Supplementary Tests 

Additional tests may be given by starting the pupil 
with a different word, such as the following : cloud, dog, 
car, book, mother, ball. 

The Opposites Test 

Method. — The pupil is provided with a printed slip 
containing the twenty words. These test slips are 
placed face down on the pupil's desk and the following 
instructions are given : 

" You have on these slips of paper twenty words. I wish you 
to write after each word, another word that has the opposite 
meaning. For example, if one word were far, you could write as 
its opposite, near." 

When you are sure the pupils understand, have them 
take hold of the test slip, and at the signal, turn it over. 
At the same "instant, start the stop watch. Allow 60 
seconds in grades two, three, and four, 45 seconds in 
grades above. A considerable per cent of adults finish 
the test in less than 45 seconds ; therefore, for the most 
accurate test, one should allow only 30 seconds when 
giving the test to adults. 

Method of Grading. — The grade is the number of 
words correctly written. Some of the words have more 
than one meaning, so allow credit for the opposite of the 
word in any of its meanings. In the table of norms 
for this and the two tests following, the grades are re- 
duced to speed per minute. 



28 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



Material. — Use printed slips containing the follow- 
ing words. There should be space to the right of the 
words for writing the opposites. 



i. good 


11. like 


2. outside 


12. rich 


3. quick 


13. sick 


4. tall 


14. glad 


5. big 


15. thin 


6. loud 


16. empty 


7. white 


17. war 


8. light 


18. many 


9. happy 


19. above 


10. false 


20. friend 



For adults the foregoing test may be merely a test 
in speed of writing ; therefore the third list on page 29 
may be more satisfactory. The norm for the first list, 
page 29, is for adults 16.2, and for the second list the 
norm is 15.6, time 30 sec. 



TABLE VI 

Norms 





BOYS 


Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


33 


65 


60 


61 


72 


65 


61 


40 


33 


17 


22 


62 




Norm . . 


9.0 


8.4 


7-5 


10.9 


«-5 


14-5 


14-5 


16.0 


18.6 


19.6 


22.4 


22.1 


14.58 


Av. Dev. . 


3-3 


3.o 


3-1 


2.9 


2.9 


4-5 


4-3 


5-2 


5-3 


3-3 


3-2 


3-3 


3.69 


GIRLS 


Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


33 


56 


77 


65 


74 


73 


58 


49 


48 


27 


26 


85 




Norm . . 


8.0 


7.6 


10.9 


11. 2 


13-9 


14.9 


17.4 


17-3 


19-3 


31-4 


23-4 


23-4 


16.55 


Av. Dev. . 


4.0 


2.9 


31 


3-0 


3-6 


4-3 


3-9 


5-1 


4.2 


4.9 


3-i 


4.0 


3.84 





THE GENUS-SPECIES TEST 



2 9 



Additional Tests 



I 




II 


III 


1. long 


1. 


north 


1. best 


2. soft 


2. 


out 


2. weary 


3. cheap 


3- 


sour 


3. cloudy 


4. far 


4- 


weak 


4. patient 


5- up 


5. 


after 


5. careful 


6. smooth 


6. 


guilty 


6. stale 


7. early 


7- 


clean 


7. tender 


8. dead 


8. 


slow 


8. ignorant 


9. hot 


9- 


large 


9. doubtful 


10. asleep 


10. 


true 


10. serious 


11. lost 


11. 


dark 


ii. reckless 


12. wet 


12. 


front 


12. join 


13. high 


13- 


love 


13. advance 


14. .dirty 


14. 


ugly 


14. honest 


15. east 


15. 


open 


15- gay 


16. day 


16. 


summer 


16. forget 


17. yes 


17- 


new 


17. calm 


18. wrong 


18. 


come 


18. rare 


19. empty 


19. 


male 


19. dim 


20. top 


20. 


failure 


20. difficult 


I and II are at 


iapted 


from Woodworth and Wells 



The Genus-Species Test 

Method. — The method of giving this test is the same 

as for the above. The instructions should be : 

"You have before you a slip containing 20 words. These 
words are class names. I wish you to name an example or species 
under the class. For example, if one word were food, you could 
name bread, or if one word were clothing, you could write coat, etc." 

Method of Grading. — Allow one point for each word 



3° 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



correctly written. A word is correct if it really names 
a species under the genus named by the word of the list. 
Material. — For this test, use printed slips containing 
the following words : 



I. 


mountain 




II. 


ocean 


2. 


city 




12. 


fruit 


3- 


weed 




13- 


country 


4- 


metal 




14. 


animal 


5- 


furniture 




IS- 


bird 


6. 


machine 




16. 


food 


7- 


author 




i7- 


lake 


8. 


planet 




18. 


tool 


9- 


river 




19. 


fish 


IO. 


book 


TABLE VI 

Norms 


20. 

t 


money 



Age . . 
No. . . 
Norm . 
Av. Dev. 



13 
68 
10.0 
3-8 



14 

64 

10.5 

3-8 



15 
41 
11. 1 

5-4 



16 
33 

15-2 

4-3 



17 
18 
14.0 
4.1 



17-3 
6.0 



Ad. 

65 
iS-i 

4.0 



Av. 



10.35 
3-97 



Age . . . 


8 


Q 


io 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


34 


65 


84 


63 


81 


64 


55 


40 


45 


32 


25 


86 




Norm . . 


5-5 


5-4 


7.8 


8.2 


9-3 


9-5 


11.8 


14.0 


16.4 


16.0 


18.3 


15-5 


11.47 


Av. Dev. . 


3-6 


2-5 


3-2 


3-7 


2.9 


3-2 


3-2 


4.2 


5-4 


4.9 


5-3 


3.8 


3.82 



Additional Material for Genus-Species Test 
From Woodworth and Wells 
1. color 4. tool 



2. holiday 

3. fish 



5. metal 

6. vegetable 



THE PART-WHOLE TEST 



31 



7- 


coin 


14. 


drink 


8. 


city 


15. 


month 


9- 


insect 


16. 


ocean 


10. 


food 


i7- 


language 


11. 


fruit 


18. 


river 


12. 


disease 


19. 


newspaper 


13- 


grain 


20. 


tree 



The Part-Whole Test 

Method. — The general procedure for this test is 
the same as for the two preceding tests. The instruc- 
tions should be : 

" The slip before you contains 20 words, each of which names 
the whole of something. I wish you to write after each word a 
word which names a part of the thing. For example, if one word 
were engine, you could write wheel. If one word were foot, you 
could write toe, etc." 

Allow 60 seconds for grades two, three, and four; 45 
seconds for grades above. 

Material. — For material use the words in the list 
below. 



1. window 

2. leaf 

3. pillow 

4. button 

5. nose 

6. smokestack 

7. cogwheel 

8. cover 

9. letter 
10. petal 



11. page 

12. cob 

13. axle 

14. lever 

15. blade 

16. sail 

17. coach 

18. cylinder 

19. beak 

20. stamen 



32 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



Method of Grading. — Grade as in the preceding test. 
Allow one credit for each word written that satisfies 
the conditions. 



TABLE VIII 

Norms 
boys 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 




No. . . . 


3i 


67 


70 


65 


76 


77 


62 


42. 


35 


12 


23 


66 




Norm . . 


5-5 


6-5 


7-3 


8.9 


8.91 


1. 11 


2.2 


14.8 


15-9 


15-8 


19-3 


18.5 


12.05 


Av. Dev. . 


3-6 


2.9 


2-5 


2.8 


3-4 


4-3 


4.1 


5-5 


5-3 


4.0 


5-6 


3-6 


3-96 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 




No. . . . 


43 


64 


88 


67 


87 


71 


63 


48 


51 


38 


28 


87 




Norm . . 


4.6 


5-9 


7-8 


10.0 


10.0 


10.8 


12.5 


14.0 


16.9 


16.2 


19.7 


19-7 


12.34 


Av. Dev. . 


2.6 


2-4 


2.9 


3-5 


3.7 


3-5 


3-2 


4-5 


4-5 


4.8 


4.6 


3-4 


3.63 



Additional Material eor Part-Whole Test 



From Woodworth and Wells 



1. elbow 

2. hinge 
3- page 

4. finger 

5. wing 

6. morning 

7. blade 

8. mattress 

9. chimney 
10. cent 



11. sleeve 

12. brick 

13. deck 

14. France 

15. pint 

16. fin 

17. steeple 

18. month 

19. hub 

20. chin 



THE IMAGINATION OR INK-BLOT TEST 33 



10 





_ Girls y^ NS 


> ~~~~~ "" 


^"~ ^^T-> .^N.. y^ 


^-- P0U5 ^/ 




y — — -^^ 




&&-</ 


s^^- 


^^^^^ 





/Ue 



8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 Ads. 

The Association Tests. The upper graphs represent the results of 
the free or uncontrolled association test. The lower graphs represent 
the results of the controlled association tests combined. The solid 
lines are for boys and the broken lines for girls. 



The Imagination or Ink-Blot Test 

Object. — This test has been called a test of the im- 
agination, and so it is a test of an aspect of imagination, 
but it seems to test much the same sort of ability as do 
the association tests. It tests the quickness of the 
association processes. The child has placed before him 
an ink-blot; the time required for this blot to suggest 
anything is measured. The method of giving this test 
first used by the author was to allow the child to look 
at each card for a minute, recording the different things 
suggested by the blot. The test is of little value when 
given in this way. However, when given as indicated 



34 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

below, the test will probably prove a valuable one. 
But the data for norms under the new method are in- 
adequate. They are given in the table and may serve 
as some indication of the probable norm. 

Method. — The ink-blots are distributed, one set to 
each pupil, and placed face up on the pupil's desk, the top 
blot being covered by an opaque square of paper of the 
same size as the blots. The instructions are as follows : 

" You have before you 20 cards, each of which has on it an ink- 
blot. When I give the signal to begin, you are to remove the 
paper on top and write down as quickly as possible what the blot 
suggests, and then proceed to the next and so on as fast as you 
can until the time is up. You will probably not have time to 
finish all, but you must work as fast as you can. If you come to 
a blot that suggests nothing to you, do not spend all of your time 
on it but proceed to the next blot. Of course these blots are not 
really meant to look like anything in particular but they will 
suggest things, as clouds sometimes do." 

Allow three minutes for the test. The grade is the 
number of blots for which names of objects were written. 
There is no limitation put upon the pupil. Whatever 
the blot suggests to him is to be counted. The blots 
should be placed with the number on the card turned 
toward the pupil, and the pupil, in looking at the card, 
should keep it in this position and not turn it around 
into other positions. In spite of the definite statement 
in the instructions that the blots were intended to repre- 
sent nothing in particular, many pupils think they were 
so intended and try to discover what the blots were 
really intended to represent. 



THE CANCELLATION TEST 



35 



TABLE IX 

Norms 

BOYS 





Age . . . 


8 


9 


IO 


ii 


12 


13 


14 


1 5 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


5 


II 


ii 


ii 


8 


13 


4 










65 




Norm . . 


1 1.8 


8.8 


7-7 


6.4 


O.I 


o.o 


6.7 










io.6 


8.8 


Av.' Dev. . 


5-7 


3-° 


2-3 


4-9 


4-6 


4-7 


2.2 










3-i 


38 


GIRLS 


Age . . . 


8 


9 


IO 


ii 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Av. 


No. . . . 


6 


16 


16 


18 


15 


17 












86 




Norm . . 


12.0 


Q.8 


7-8 


6.6 


6.8 


10.3 












Q.8 


7-9 


Av. Dev. . 


3-3 


3-5 


2.6 


3-6 


4-3 


2.1 












3-6 


2.9 





The Cancellation Test 

Object. — This test has been called an attention test, 
a quickness of perception test, etc. It certainly does 
test quickness of perception and discrimination and to 
some extent quickness of reaction. As far as I have been 
able to determine, it has no very close relation to general 
intelligence. But further and more thorough study will 
probably reveal certain relations between abilities tested 
by this test and some aspects of the learning process. 
I therefore include the test, although its usefulness has 
not as yet been fully justified. 

Material. — For this test, use the printed sheets 
beginning hplg. 

. Method. — Distribute the sheets and allow the pupils 
to look at them, then have the sheets turned face down 
upon the desks. Give the following instructions : 



36 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



"You have before you a sheet printed, as you have seen, with 
all the letters of the alphabet placed close together and in no 
definite order. You are to take your pencil and cancel all the a's 
you can in the time allowed. Do this by making a little vertical 
stroke through every a. Work as fast as you can without omit- 
ting any a's, and you must cancel no other letter." 

Then give the signal and begin. Allow two minutes 
in grades two, three, and four; 90 seconds in grades 
above. 

Method of Grading. — The grade is the number of a's 
marked per minute. 

table x 

Norms 
boys 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 




No. . . . 


57 


83 


80 


75 


77 


67 


52 


38 


29 


15 


21 


63 




Norm . . 


7-8 


9.2 


10.4 


11.4 


13.8 


13.2 


16.9 


15-2 


17-5 


7.6 


21.5 


22.2 


14.72 


Av. Dev. . 


2.3 


2-3 


2.8 


3-o 


3-8 


2.8 


4.1 


3-7 


3-8 


14.7 


4-5 


4.4 


3-5i 



Age . . . 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 




No. . . . 


53 


89 


80 


68 


85 


60 


57 


49 


46 


42 


28 


87 




Norm . . 


8.2 


10.6 


11.4 


13-3 


14-5 


16.4 


17.8 


18.9 


20.4 


21.5 


22.5 


23.0 


17-37 


Av. Dev. . 


2.3 


3-0 


3-2 


3-4 


3-4 


3-6 


4.1 


4.2 


4-5 


4.9 


3-6 


4.1 


369 



Additional Tests 

The same test sheet can be used for further tests. 
For a second test, cancel e; for a third test, cancel 0. 
The norm for adults canceling e is 24.8, and for can- 
celing is 27. 



ADDITIONAL TESTS 



37 



20- 



5- 



Gvfe 



y*$ 



A&g 



6 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 fyulb 
The Cancellation Test. Upper line, girls ; lower line, boys. 

In the following table, the data from all the tests, 
except imagination, are brought together. That each 
test might have about the same bearing in the aver- 
ages, the original figures were modified as follows : To 
obtain the grades in substitution, add the results of 
the two tests and take three fourths. Logical memory 
is the same as in the original tables. Rote memory, 
the concrete and abstract grades are added and divided 
by two. The cancellation grades are doubled. The 
three grades in controlled association are added together. 
The two grades in invention are added together. The 
averages in the horizontal columns make it possible to 
compare the sexes for any age in all the tests com- 
bined. The averages in the last vertical column make 
it possible to compare the sexes in any test, all ages 
combined. 



3« 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



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Age . . . 
Substitution 
Logical Memo 
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Controlled 


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THE PHYSICAL TESTS 



39 



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6 9 10 II 12 13 14- 15 16 IT l&.AiV 

Mental Growth. These graphs show the improvement in the various 
tests — except imagination — combined. The upper line is for girls 
and the lower for boys. The data for these curves are to be found 
in Table XL 

The Physical Tests 
The correlation between mental and physical develop- 
ment has been established beyond doubt. It is there- 
fore very important that physical measurements and 
tests be made along with the mental tests. Careful 
records of a child's physical growth should be kept from 
the time of entering school till the school work is finished. 
It must be remembered, however, that a child's absolute 
physical measurements are not of much significance 
unless account is taken of the hereditary stock to which 
the child belongs. But regardless of whether the child 
is to be a tall adult or a short adult, a heavy-weight or 
a light-weight, etc., his growth can be followed, and the 



40 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

relation between the different measurements also can be 
considered. Especially is this true with the measure- 
ment of vital capacity. Here the lung capacity can 
be compared with the weight and very valuable infor- 
mation be obtained. 

The most significant physical measurements are 
measurements of weight, height, vital capacity, muscular 
strength, and muscular speed. We therefore give simple 
directions for making these measurements, and norms 
for the various ages. 

Height. — For this measurement, a stadiometer is 
required for accurate measurement. One can be bought 
from the dealer, or possibly one could be made by the 
school that would be satisfactory. The essential re- 
quirement is a box at the bottom and an upright ex- 
tending up at right angles at the back of the box. On 
this upright slides a wooden piece which is to be brought 
down upon the top of the head when making the measure- 
ment. On the upright should be, on one side, a scale 
in inches, and on the other, one in centimeters. 

Standing Height. — The pupil is to stand on the box 
with heels, buttock, and head against the upright. The 
shoes should be removed, or allowance made for the 
height of the heels. The chin of the pupil being 
measured should be moderately elevated, not too high 
nor too low. The headpiece should be brought down 
firmly against the top of the head. A little experience 
soon gives the teacher accuracy in taking the measure- 
ment. 



THE PHYSICAL TESTS 4 1 

Sitting Height. — The pupil being measured should 
sit well back on the box with the shoulders and head 
touching the upright, and the headpiece is then brought 
down as in measuring standing height. 

Weight. — For determining the weight accurate 
scales are required. The weight includes the ordinary 
clothing. 

Vital Capacity. — For this measurement a wet spirom- 
eter is required. It is one of the most significant 
of the physical measurements, for the relation of the 
vital capacity to weight can be determined by dividing 
the vital capacity in cubic centimeters by the weight in 
kilograms. This ratio shows whether the pupil has a 
lung capacity adequate for his body. This ratio as 
determined by Kotelmann for the different ages from 
9 to 20 is shown in Table XII. The average vital 
capacity for the different ages as determined by Smedley 
is shown in Table XV. 

Method. — First of all, it is important to be hygienic. 
The mouthpieces of the spirometer should be kept in 
a little jar of alcohol. There should be a dozen or more 
of the mouthpieces. When one has been used, it should 
be rinsed a little in a pan of water and then dropped into 
the jar of alcohol. The teacher first should demonstrate 
the method to the pupil. The lungs are filled as full as 
possible and the air is gradually blown from the lungs 
into the spirometer. The child must be encouraged to 
fill his lungs as full as possible. The air should be blown 
into the apparatus not too fast nor too slowly for the 



42 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 




Measuring sitting height by means of a stadiometer. 



THE PHYSICAL TESTS 



43 




Determining standing height and weight. 



44 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



best result. Three trials should be given the pupil 
and the best record recorded. 

The pointer on the apparatus indicates the result in 
liters. This reading can be turned into cubic centi- 
meters by multiplying by iooo. 

Children showing up poorly in vital capacity should 
have their cases further examined. In many cases it 
will be found that they need more exercise, particularly 
of a type that will develop the chest, but any vigorous 
outdoor exercise will be beneficial. 



TABLE XII 
The Vital Index 

The following table from Kotelmann shows the relation of vital capacity to weight. 
This index is computed by dividing the vital capacity in cubic centimeters by the 
weight in kilograms. The index therefore represents the number of cubic centimeters 
of air space in the lungs for each kilogram of weight. 



20 
65.01 



Age 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


19 


Index 


69.32 


69.37 


69.18 


67.SI 


66.75 


64.07 


63.18 


65.94 


65.77 


64.28 


66.22 



Taking Smedley's norms of weight and vital capacity shown in Tables XIV and XV, 
I have computed the vital index in terms of the number of cubic centimeters of air 
capacity per pound of weight, by converting the weight in Kg. to pounds and dividing 
this weight in pounds into the vital capacity. It will be noticed that the girls show a 
falling off after the age of n. This may be due to tight lacing. The first horizontal 
column gives the age, underneath is given the vital index for boys, and in the bottom 
column, for girls. 



Age 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


,6 


17 


18 


Boys . . 


23 


24 


25 


25 


25 


25 


25 


25 


25 


M 


26 


27 


27 


Girls . . 


22 


23 


23 


23 


23 


23 


22 


21 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 



Muscular Strength. — For this test a Smedley dyna- 
mometer is required. The handpiece should be ad- 
justed to fit the hand of the pupil. 



THE PHYSICAL TESTS 



45 




46 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 




Testing muscular strength by means of a Smedley dynamometer. 



THE PHYSICAL TESTS 47 

Method. — The pupil takes the dynamometer in the 
hand, holds it by his side but not touching the body, 
gives the handpiece a squeeze as hard as possible, 
and then releases his grip. There is a second indicator 
that gives the record. Three trials should be given and 
the best record taken. Since both hands are to be tested, 
try first with the right hand and then with the left, then 
with the right again, and so continue to alternate till 
each hand has had three trials. The teacher should 
be careful to see that the child manipulates the instru- 
ment properly, not touching his body with his hand nor 
using both hands at once. The trial with one hand 
should not be prolonged, but one good hard grip given 
and then the instrument released. 

Muscular Speed. — For this test, some sort of tapping 
apparatus is needed. The best form is the tapping 
board and kymograph for record, but this is very ex- 
pensive. A cheaper, and fairly satisfactory apparatus 
is the electrical counter. 

Method. — The pupil is instructed to take the stylus 
in his hand and tap as fast as possible. Take the record 
first with the right hand and then with the left. The 
record is for a thirty second test. 

The norms are shown in the tables. The teacher 
should note whether one hand is better than the other. 
It is a common thing for speech defects to be associated 
with ambidexterity, equal speed with the two hands. 
A small per cent of children are normally left-handed, 
and it is probably a dangerous thing to interfere with 



48 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 




THE PHYSICAL TESTS 



49 



this, at least early in life. Such interference has been 
known to bring on speech defects. If a child is to be 
trained to ambidexterity, this training should probably 
be postponed to later school life. This question is not 
definitely settled, however. 



TABLE XIII 

Norms of Standing and Sitting Height, in Cm. (Smedley) 





Standing Height 


Sitting Height 


Age 






Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


6.0 


110.69 


109.66 


62.40 


61.72 


6-5 
















113-25 


112. 51 


63.54 


62.90 


7.0 
















115.82 


H5-37 


64.67 


64.07 


7-5 
















118.39 


118.22 


65.78 


65-25 


8.0 
















120.93 


120.49 


66.75 


66.34 


8.5 
















123.48 


122.75 


67.72 


67.43 


9.0 
















126.14 


125.24 


68.79 


68.32 


9-5 
















128.80 


127.74 


69.85 


69.21 


10.0 
















130.91 


130.07 


70.56 


70.05 


10.5 
















I33-03 


132.41 


71.26 


70.89 


II.O 
















I35-H 


135-35 


72.10 


72.23 


II-5 
















I37-I9 


138-30 


72.93 


73.58 


12.0 
















139-54 


141.31 


73.8o 


74-93 


12.5 
















141.89 


144.32 


74.70 


76.29 


13.C 
















145-54 


147.68 


76.24 


77.91 


13-5 
















149.09 


151.04 


77-79 


79-54 


14.0 
















151.92 


153-64 


79.21 


80.99 


14-5 
















154-74 


156.24 


80.64 


82.43 


15.C 
















158.07 


156.83 


82.18 


83.21 


15-5 
















161.41 


157-42 


83.68 


83-99 


16.0 
















164.03 


158.30 


8543 


84-54 


16.5 
















166.65 


159.18 


87.17 


85.09 


17.0 
















167.85 


159.26 


88.16 


85.20 


17-5 
















169.04 


159-34 


89.14 


85-30 


18.C 














171.23 


159.42 


90.30 


85-51 


18.5 














I73-4I 


i59.5o 


91.46 


85.72 



5° 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



TABLE XIV 

Norms of Weight, in Kg., with Clothing (Smedley) 



Age 


Boys 


GrRLS 


Age 


Boys 


Girls 


6 . . . . 


I9-738 


18.870 


13 . . . . 


38.084 


38-974 


7 






21.613 


20.974 


14 ... . 


42.696 


44.219 


8 






23.817 


23.010 


15 ... . 


47-993 


48.161 


9 






26.336 


25-257 


16 ... . 


53-.23S 


50.652 


IO 






28.707 


27-795 


17 


57-384 


52.386 


ii 






31.223 


30.662 


18 ... . 


61.283 


52-923 


12 






34-iSi 


34-373 









TABLE XV 

Norms or Lung (Vital) in C. C. Capacity (Smedley) 



Age 


Boys 


Girls 


Age 


Boys 


Girls 


6 . . . . 


1023 


950 


13 . : : . 


2108 


1827 


7 






1168 


1061 


.14 . '. . . 


2395 


2014 


8 






1316 


1165 


15 . •. '. . 


2697 


2168 


9 






1469 


1286 


16 . . . . 


3120 


2266 


10 






1603 


1409 


17 . . -. . 


3483 


2319 


11 






1732 


1526 


18 . . 


3655 


2343 


12 






1883 


1664 









The absolute lung capacity is of no great significance, unless compared 
with the child's height or weight. In Table XII the- lung capacity is 
compared with weight. This relation is known as the vital index. 



THE PHYSICAL TESTS 



51 



TABLE XVI 

Norms of Strength of Grip, in Kg. (Smedley) 



Age 



6 

7 
8 

9 

10 
n 
12 
13 

14 
15 
16 

17 

18 



Boys 



Girls 



Rt. Hand 


L. Hand 


Rt. Hand 


L. Hand 


9.21 


8.48 


8.36 


7-74 


IO.74 


IO. II 


9.88 


9.24 


12.41 


II.67 


11. 16 


10.48 


14-34 


13-47 


12.77 


11.97 


16.52 


15-59 


14.65 


13.72 


18.85 


17.72 


16.54 


15-52 


21.24 


19.71 


18.92 


17.78 


24.44 


22.51 


21.84 


20.39 


28.42 


26.22 


24.79 


22.92 


33-39 


30.88 


27.00 


24.92 


39-37 


36.39 


28.70 


26.56 


44.74 


40.96 


29.56 


27-43 


49.28 


45.01 


29-75 


27.66 



TABLE XVII 

Norms of Tapping Rate (Smedley) 



Age 



9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 



No. 
Tested 



31 

60 

47 
49 
44 
5o 
40 

37 
21 

13 
3 



Boys 



Rt. Hand L. Hand 



147 
151 
161 
169 
170 
184 
184 
191 
196 
196 
197 



117 
127 
132 
141 
145 
156 
155 
169 
170 
174 
183 



No. 
Tested 



31 
44 
48 
48 
5o 
45 
67 
48 
5o 
40 
24 



Girls 



Rt. Hand L. Hand 



146 
149 

157 
169 
169 
178 
181 
181 
188 
184 
193 



117 
118 
129 

139 
140 

153 
157 
159 
167 
162 
169 



The records in the above table represent the number of taps in 30 
seconds. The number tested, however, is so small that the table is not 
very reliable. 



52 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

Test or Eyesight 

Importance of Test. — If all school children were 
examined by competent oculists, it would be found that 
one third to two fifths of them have defective vision ; 
and in most of these cases of defect, the wearing of 
glasses would improve vision. There is a pretty gen- 
eral popular prejudice against wearing glasses, also a 
feeling that oculists prescribe them without good reason. 
Such notions are due to ignorance, — ignorance of the 
causes of defective vision and of the way in which glasses 
correct the defects. Glasses are worn to correct ab- 
normal curvatures of the eyes. Nature never makes a 
pair of perfect eyes. And in a very large number of 
cases, this abnormality is sufficient to impair vision con- 
siderably. In practically all such cases, glasses should 
be worn to correct the effect of the misshapen eyeball. 

A child suffering from defective eyesight is at a great 
disadvantage in school. A nearsighted child can not 
see work on the blackboard, nor does he see any distant 
object clearly. The far sighted child has difficulty in 
reading or doing any near work. The child with astig- 
matic eyes sees nothing clearly at any distance. Not 
only does defective vision incapacitate a child for his 
work at school, but the eye strain has many and far- 
reaching effects, causing inflamed eyes, abnormal growths 
in and about the eyes, headaches, nervousness, indiges- 
tion, and many other troubles. Poor eyes, making the 
child unable to do his school work, may make him dis- 
like school and so lead to truancy. 



TEST OF EYESIGHT 53 

Method of Testing. — The teacher's object is to dis- 
cover those cases that need the service of an oculist. 
To do this, the only apparatus needed is a Snellen's 
test chart. The chart should be hung on the wall 
in a good light. Mark off on the floor a place 20 feet 
distant from the chart. Place the child under examina- 
tion at this place. Examine the eyes one at a time, 
placing a cardboard before the other eye. The child 
is asked to read the larger letters on the chart, proceed- 
ing to the smallest letters that can be read. The vision 
of each eye is recorded separately, 20/20 if the 20-foot line 
and no smaller can be read. If the child can read up 
to the 25-foot line only, the vision is recorded as 20/25. 
If the child can read the 15-foot line, then the vision 
should be recorded as 20/15. If a child sitting 20 feet 
from the chart can read the 15-foot line or even the 10- 
foot line, he may be farsighted. In such a case the 
teacher should ascertain whether there are any symp- 
toms of eyestrain, such as headaches, and should see 
if the child has any difficulty in reading a book at the 
normal reading distance, 14 inches. If a child has only 
two thirds vision, or if there are any indications of far- 
sightedness, he should be referred to an oculist. 

If the teacher has any reason at all to suspect eye- 
strain in a pupil, the pupil should be referred to an 
oculist, and the oculist should be the best obtainable. 
Opticians and jewelers are not competent to examine 
eyes and prescribe glasses. 

There are other forms of test for children who do not 



54 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 




TESTS OF HEARING 55 

know their letters. One of these is the E-test. In this 
test, both the examiner and the child hold in their hands 
a cardboard with a large E printed on it. By asking 
the child to hold the E pointed in the same way as that 
held by the examiner, it can be determined whether 
there is any visual defect. The other test is the McCallie 
test. On the McCallie test cards are little circles and 
in some of the circles are little dots. The principle of 
the test is to determine whether the child can see the 
dots in the circles. 

Tests or Hearing 

Importance of Test. — It is unnecessary to discuss the 
importance of accurate determination of a child's ability 
to hear. Fifteen to twenty per cent of school children 
have defective hearing. Cornell says that defective 
hearing constitutes the greatest bar to school progress. 
Not only is a child of defective hearing thereby re- 
tarded in his studies, but it is often also the case that 
the defect grows worse. Yet in many cases the defect 
can be cured, especially if treated in time. 

Method. — The best device for testing hearing is 
the Pilling-McCallie audiometer. Every school that 
makes any pretense of careful examination of pupils 
should have this instrument and use it according to the 
directions that accompany it. A little use of the in- 
strument makes one able to detect defective hearing 
very quickly. Twenty to thirty children can be ex- 
amined in an hour. The records obtained for each 



56 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 




TESTS OF HEARING 57 

child should be carefully recorded, and, of course, 
separate tests made for each ear. 

If the Pilling-McCallie audiometer is not available, 
the watch test may be used in individual examinations. 
The principle of examination is very simple. The ear 
not being examined is closed by a rubber plug. The 
eyes also of the pupil are kept closed during the exami- 
nation. A watch is carried out from the ear being 
tested, and the distance at which the ticking of the 
watch becomes inaudible is noted. Then the watch 
is carried in toward the ear from a distance at which 
it is inaudible, and the distance at which the ticking 
becomes audible is noted. The average of these two 
points is taken to indicate the sensitivity of the ear. 
Practice enables the examiner to know at once whether 
hearing is defective. Watches differ much in the 
loudness of their ticks, and an examiner should deter- 
mine the distance at which a person of good hearing can 
hear the watch used. A quiet room is necessary for the 
performance of the watch test. 

It is possible to get some idea of the defective hearing 
of children by employing group tests. The teacher 
or examiner prepares a list of numbers, 43248, 98374, 
59136, etc. These are numbered, as 1, 2, 3, etc. The 
child prepares a paper numbered in accordance with 
the number of groups of digits that are to be given. 
Then the groups of digits are pronounced and the child 
writes them down in their places as well as he can. The 
teacher can seat the children in three groups, a near, a 



5 8. THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

far, and an intermediate group, and by interchanging 
them three times, tests each child at all of the distances. 
By comparing the numbers written by the child with 
the numbers pronounced, the teacher may get an idea 
of those that have defective hearing. If the teacher 
uses three distances for seating the children, she will 
then need three lists of numbers. The digits may be 
pronounced in a whisper, or they may be pronounced in 
a very low tone of voice, or both procedures may be used. 
Whatever the means used to determine the defects, 
the child showing any indication of defective hearing 
should be advised to consult a physician. If there is 
an ear specialist in the community, he is the man who 
should be consulted. 

Correlations 

After giving the mental tests, we wish to know what 
relation exists between them, what mental functions 
are most alike or have most in common, and also, what 
indication each test is of general intelligence. In order 
to determine these relations, we can use the Pearson 
formula for computing correlations. This formula 
enables us to compare the relative standing of each 
pupil in one test with his standing in another test. 
Of course, one can do this in a rough way by inspection. 
One can note whether the best in one test are also best 
in another ; whether the poorest in one test are also 
poor in another test. The Pearson formula not only 
enables us to do this, but enables us to take account of 



CORRELATIONS 59 

how far each pupil varies from the average of the group 
in one test and compare this with his variation in 
another test, and moreover, we can give an exact quan- 
titative statement which takes account of all the in- 
dividual variations. More important, perhaps, than 
the interrelations of the tests themselves, is their re- 
lation to general intelligence. A good criterion of general 
intelligence is the school grades for the year, provided 
the grades are determined in a careful manner. Not 
only will it be advantageous for the teacher to compute 
the correlation between the average grade for all the 
mental tests with the average school grade, but it will 
be profitable tq ; compute the correlation between each 
separate test and the standing in the different school 
branches. 

The principle embodied in the Pearson formula is 
essentially as follows : Suppose the pupils have been 
tested in logical memory and we wish to compare their 
standing in this test with their standing in rote memory. 
We find the average of the group in logical memory 
and compute each individual's deviation from this 
average. We find the average of the group in rote 
memory and compute each individual's deviation from 
this average. Now if there is a perfect correlation 
between the two tests, each individual's deviation will 
be relatively the same in the two tests. But if the 
correlation is not perfect, an individual may deviate 
more in one test than he does in the other, or may even 
be above the average in one test and below in the other. 



60 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

The formula takes account of the deviation and of its 
direction above or below the average. The Pearson 

formula : 

r = correlation. 

= %XY 5 = the sum of. 

n o^ X = the individual deviations in one test. 

Y = the individual deviations in the other test. 

I.e., the numerator of the fraction is found by multi- 
plying each individual's deviation in one test by his 
deviation in the other test and rinding the sum of these 
products. In this process account must be taken of 
the direction of the deviation. If the deviation is above 
the average, it is called plus, and if below the average, 
minus. The algebraic product and the algebraic sum 
of these products are found. 

n = the number of persons tested. 

o-i = the standard deviation in one test. 

o- 2 = the standard deviation in the other test. 

The standard deviation may be found by multiplying 
the average deviation by 1.2533. This method of 
finding the standard deviation is fairly accurate. If 
absolute accuracy is desired the standard deviation is 
to be found by taking the square root of the average of 
the squares of the individual deviations. The pro- 
cedure would be : square each individual deviation, 
add these squares, divide by the number of pupils con- 
sidered and extract the square root. The average devi- 
ation is found by finding the sum of the individual 



CORRELATIONS 



6l 



deviations — without regard to sign — and dividing by 
the number of pupils in the test. The denominator 
of the fraction, therefore, is the product of the number 
of pupils considered and the standard deviation in one 
test and the standard deviation in the other test. In 
order to make the matter quite clear, we give below a 
theoretical case in logical and rote memory. 



Pupil 


Log. Mem. 


Deviation 


Rote Mem. 


Deviation 


Products of 
Deviations 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 




62 
58 
60 
56 
5o 
40 

35 
30 

20 

15 


19.4 

15-4 
17.4 

13-4 

7-4 

- 2.6 

-7.6 

— 12.6 

— 22.6 

— 27.6 


70 

65 
60 
58 
50 
45 
40 

35 
30 
20 


22.7 
17.7 
12.7 
10.7 
2.7 

- 2.3 

- 7-3 

- 12.3 

- 17-3 

- 27.3 


440.38 
272.58 
220.98 
I43-38 

19.98 
5-98 

55-48 
154.98 
390.98 
753-48 


Average 


42.6 


14.6 


47-3 


13-3 


2458.20 



The standard deviation in logical memory = 1.2533 X 14.6 = 18.29. 
The standard deviation in rote memory = 1.2533 X 13.3 = 16.66. 
We therefore have 

r = 2458.20 

10 X 18.29 X 16.66 
= .806 

This correlation is high, and we would find a corre- 
lation between logical and rote memory, although not 
so high a one as our hypothetical figures give. Now let 
us take a supposed case that will not give us a high cor- 
relation. We should not expect to find a correlation 
between memory and weight, so let us suppose the fol- 
lowing figures : 



62 



THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 



Memory 


Deviations 


Weight 


Deviations 


+ Products 


- Products 


65 


17 


200 


50 


850 




60 


12 


160 


10 


120 




60 


12 


155 


5 


60 




55 


7 


124 


- 26 




- 182 


50 


2 


no 


- 40 




- 80 


45 


- 3 


112 


-38 


114 




40 


- 8 


122 


- 28 


224 




38 


— 10 


154 


4 




- 40 


37 


— 11 


165 


15 




-165 


30 


- 18 


198 


48 




-864 


Av. 48 


10 


150 


26.4 


+ 1368 


- 1331 



1368 - 1331 = 37 
Standard deviation in memory = 1.2533 X 10 = 12.53. 
Standard deviation in weight = 1.2533 X 26.4 = 33.09. 
The number tested =10. 



37_ 



10 X 12.53 X 33-09 



= practically nothing (.008). 



The following tables show the raw correlations 



Cancellation with 


Invention with 




substitution = 


.02 


ink blots = 


•25 


invention = 


.07 


association = 


.16 


ink blots = 


.16 


log. memory = - 


- .22 


association = 


.02 


rote memory = 


•25 


log. memory = — 


.27 






rote memory = 


.00 






Substitution with 






invention = 


•13 






ink blots = 


.24 


Ink blots with 




association = 


•23 


association = 


•49 


log. memory = 


•37 


log. memory = — 


.01 


rote memory = 


•15 


rote memory = 


.12 



GRADES IN SCHOOL SUBJECTS 63 

Association with 
log. memory = .03 
rote memory = — .05 
Log. memory with 
rote memory = — .07 

Some of the correlations within the same test are as follows : 
Substitution, .70; logical memory, .44; ink blots, .42; in- 
vention, .91. 

The following pure correlations have been computed : 
Substitution, with logical memory = .63 ; with ink blots 
= .21 ; with invention = .35 ; with cancellation = .28. Logi- 
cal memory with cancellation = — .81. 

Grades in School Subjects 

It is the custom in most schools to send to parents 
reports showing the grades of their children in the dif- 
ferent school subjects. We need not discuss here the 
value of such reports. It is almost a universal custom 
to make some sort of report to parents. Some edu- 
cators believe that these reports should be of a general 
character, — that parents should be told that the work 
of their child is satisfactory or unsatisfactory, or satis- 
factory in some particular but unsatisfactory in others, 
etc. Now, it may be that they are right. The value 
of reports is a thing that can be measured, like anything 
else. The position that we wish to take here is that if 
reports to parents are to contain grades, as is the general 
practice at the present time, such grades should be 
relative, not absolute. 



64 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

If a child takes to his parents a card stating that he 
has a grade of 90 per cent in arithmetic, this means 
nothing of value to the parents. They do not know 
whether the child is the poorest or the best in the class. 
He could be either and still make a grade of 90 per cent. 
It all depends on the teacher and the examination 
questions. Now, what a parent would like to know 
about the child's work in arithmetic is how it compares 
with that of the other members of the class. Is the child 
among the best in the class, or among the poorest, 
or among the average or medium students? The 
report to parents should, therefore, give the rank of 
the child. The child is first in arithmetic, tenth in 
geography, fifth in spelling, etc. 

It has been objected to this scheme, that it does not 
give what the parent wishes to know; that the parent 
wishes to know whether the child knows arithmetic, 
absolutely, without reference to the other members of 
the class. Now, there is no absolute knowing of a 
subject, not even of the multiplication table. One 
does not merely know the multiplication table, but one 
has a certain degree of facility in the use of the table ; — 
the associations may come quickly or slowly, one may 
make many errors, or none, or few, when working at 
a certain speed. The same thing is true with all our 
knowledge, i.e. we do not merely know facts, but we have 
a certain facility in the use of facts. It is always a 
relative matter. And it is for this reason that all grades 
are relative. Moreover, since it is impossible to give 



GRADES IN SCHOOL SUBJECTS 65 

examinations of the same degree of difficulty, if absolute 
grades are given, they go up or down according to the 
difficulty of the examinations and not necessarily in 
accord with the student's work and attainments. For 
example, in two successive examinations a child may 
make 98 and 58. The child may have equal ability 
and attainments in the two cases. He may even be 
best in his class in the two cases, but the grades 98 and 
58 do not tell these facts. The parent might very 
reasonably infer from the grades that his child was 
first in the class when he received the grade of 98 and 
poorest when he later received the grade of 58. It is 
evident that the information sent to the parent — if 
any quantitative statement is to be sent at all — should 
be the relative standing of the pupil. 

There are two ways of reporting rank. One is merely 
to say that a child is first, second, third, fourth, etc. 
The other method is to report how a child stands with 
reference to the average of the class. The latter method 
is probably the best. It does not give the exact rank 
of the child, but it reveals whether a child is among 
the best, medium, or poorest children, and this is prob- 
ably accurate enough. A good scheme, recently pro- 
posed by Mr. A. P. Weiss, and tried out by myself in 
keeping my own class records, is as follows : When an 
examination is given, the grades are changed to grades 
whose average is 50. Then, as grades go above 50, 
the parent may know that the child is so much above 
the average; as they go below, the parent knows that 



66 THE EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 

the child is below the average. The use of a slide rule 
makes this change of the grades to the basis of an average 
of 50 very easy. Without a slide rule, the change would 
necessitate a little labor. To illustrate, suppose in 
a certain examination the average of the class is 70 and 
a certain pupil makes a grade of 60, we would have 
the proportion, 70 : 50 = 60 : x. x = 50 X jo > ~ 43- Of 
course, with a slide rule, we set 70 = 50 and then read off 
the grades as fast as we can write them down. 

This plan of comparing grades with the average makes 
it possible for a teacher to give as many supplementary 
mental tests as she desires, and in the absence of norms 
for the tests, compare each child with the average of the 
class. That is, the mental tests also could be recorded 
with reference to an average of 50 for the class or age or 
grade. 

MATERIAL AND APPARATUS 

All the material and apparatus for these tests and 
measurements can be obtained from C. H. Stoelting Co., 
121 North Green Street, Chicago. The teacher, however, 
could have prepared by the local printer all the material 
for the mental tests except for substitution, imagina- 
tion, and cancellation. And it would doubtless be better 
to get all the material from the above firm. 

Mental Tests 

For Logical Memory, — Marble Statue, from the text. 
For Substitution, — The digit-symbol and symbol-digit 
test sheets. 



MATERIAL AND APPARATUS 67 

For Uncontrolled Association, — No material needed. 

For Controlled Association, — Printed test sheets, as shown 

in text. 
For Cancellation, — The h p I g cancellation test sheet. 
For Imagination, — The Whipple ink blots. 
For Rote Memory, — The words in the text. 
For Invention, — No material; use the letters indicated in 

the text. 

Physical Tests 

For Height, — Stadiometer. 

For Weight, — Accurate scales. Those sold by Stoelting 
read both in pounds and kilograms. 

For Strength, — Smedley dynamometer. 

For Speed, — Tapping board and kymograph, or the tap- 
ping board and electrical counter. 

For Vital Capacity, — Wet spirometer. 

For Testing Eyesight, — Snellen's chart, and McCallie test 
cards. 

For Testing Hearing, — Pilling-McCallie audiometer, G. P. 
Pilling and Son Co., Philadelphia. Can also be obtained 
from Stoelting. 

For more extended discussion of the whole subject of mental 
and physical measurements, the reader is referred to Whip- 
ple's Manual of Mental and Physical Measurements, Warwick 
and York, Baltimore. 



INDEX 



Association tests, 24 

Backward children, 2. 

Boy, The, Who Would Not Drink, 11 

Cancellation test, 35-37 
Child expert, 5 
Children, 

knowledge of, 1 

need care, 7 
Correlations, 58-63 

Digit-symbol test, 18 
Digit- symbol test form, 20 

Eyesight, test of, 52-55 

Failure of child, 

cause of, 2 
Free association, 26 

General observations insufficient, 2 
Genus-species test, 29-31 
Golden Goose, The, 1 2 
Grades in school subjects, 63-66 

Hearing, test of, 55-58 
Height, 40-41 

Ignorance of children, 2 
Imagination test, 33-35 
Individual differences, 3 
Ink-blot test, 33-35 
Invention test, 22 

Knowledge of children, 1, 3 

Learning capacity, 18 
Lung capacity, 41 



Marble Statue, 9 

Material and apparatus, 66-67 

Memory, logical, 8-14 

rote, 14-17 
Mental development, 3 
Mental tests, general, 

directions, 7 

reliance in, 8 
Method of giving tests, 

cancellation, 35 

free association, 26 

genus-species, 29 

imagination, 34 

invention, 22 

logical memory, 9 

opposites, 27 

part- whole, 31 

rote memory, 14 

substitution, 18 
Muscular speed, 47 
Muscular strength, 44-47 

Norms, cancellation, 36 

free association, 26 

genus-species, 30 

imagination, 35 

invention, 23-24 

logical memory, 10 

opposites, 28 

part-whole, 32 

substitution, 19-22 
Norms, physical, 49-51 

Opposites test, 27-29 

Part- whole test, 31-33 
Physical tests, 39-51 



69 



70 



INDEX 



Ranking, method of, 65 
Records, value of, 4 
Rote memory, 14 

Special teacher, 5 
Subnormal children, 5, 7 
Substitution test, 18 

forms for, 20-2 1 
Supernormal children, 5 



Tests, given in morning, 8 
Two Ways, the, 13 

Uncontrolled association, 26 

Vital capacity, 41 
Vital index, 44 

Weight, 41 
Word -building, 22 



A Brief Course in the Teaching Process 

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